Effective learning isn't just about finding the easiest path—it's about the right kind of challenge. Two prominent theories—Desirable Difficulties (DDF) and Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)—offer valuable ...

In education, as in psychology, clarity matters. Yet in everyday conversations about teaching and learning, terms like learning theory and pedagogy are often used interchangeably. Phrases such as “We ...

Biology uses generative systems. Genomes consist of an alphabet of four nucleotides, which, together with certain rules for how to produce proteins and organize cells, generates an unlimited variety ...

Behaviorism was born from research done by Ivan Pavlov in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Pavlov’s research into animal digestion led to the recognition that the animals that were being ...

Theoretical physicists use machine-learning algorithms to speed up difficult calculations and eliminate untenable theories—but could they transform what it means to make discoveries? Theoretical ...

This article was published in Scientific American’s former blog network and reflects the views of the author, not necessarily those of Scientific American Noam Chomsky’s political views attract so ...

Xijia Zhang is affiliated with the University of Alberta. Kimberly Noels works for the University of Alberta. She receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

Learning new languages is a natural instinct for children, and yet it becomes more difficult as we age. We might be at a disadvantage as adults, but with a few learning methods, you can still give ...